The Limits of Freedom of Expression in the Digital Sphere
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64184/ajlps.V2.I4.Y2025.P%25p.219Keywords:
Freedom of thought - Criminal protection - Misleading Information - Public Interest.Abstract
This research addresses the criminal protection of freedom of thought, opinion, and expression as one of the fundamental rights guaranteed by constitutions and international human rights instruments. Although this freedom represents a cornerstone of democratic society, it is not absolute, as it must be balanced against the protection of public order and the rights of others. Accordingly, criminal law intervenes to prohibit and punish acts that constitute an abuse of this freedom, such as defamation, insult, or the dissemination of false and misleading information that may disturb social peace.
The study aims to highlight how criminal legislation seeks to maintain a fair balance between safeguarding freedom of expression as a constitutional right and protecting individual dignity and the public interest - particularly amid the challenges posed by the digital sphere and modern communication technologies.
References
First/ Books
1. Jabouri, N. A. (2020). Freedom of opinion and expression in international and constitutional law. Alexandria: Dar Al-Fikr Al-Jamei.
2. Hegazy, A. F. (2018). Cybercrimes in criminal law. Alexandria: Dar Al-Fikr Al-Jamei.
3. Hosni, M. N. (2009). Explanation of the Penal Code. Cairo: Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabia.
4. Khalifa, M. H. (2009). Social networking sites. Cairo: Helwan University.
5. Al-Khaili, S. N. S. (2009). Crimes committed through unlawful use of the Internet. Cairo: Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabia.
6. Al-Saeed, M. A. (2019). Freedom of opinion and expression in the comparative legal system. Cairo: New University House.
7. Al-Sanhouri, A. R. (n.d.). Al-Wasit fi Sharh al-Qanun al-Madani, Vol. 1. Cairo: Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabia.
8. Al-Sanhouri, A. R. (n.d.). Theory of obligation in Islamic jurisprudence and civil law, Vol. 1.
9. Al-Salahi, M. A. (2019). A modern view on criminalizing electronic rumors in criminal law. Tanta: Faculty of Law, Tanta University.
10. Tahir, M. (2013). Digital freedoms: Concepts and fundamentals. Cairo: Foundation for Freedom of Thought and Expression.
11. Abdul Qader, M. (2019). The criminal system of freedom of expression in Arab legislation. Cairo: Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabia.
12. Atiya, M. A. (2013). Criminal confrontation of rumor crimes. Cairo: Modern University Office.
13. Omar, A. Q. (2015). Publication and media crimes in criminal law. Alexandria: Dar Al-Fikr Al-Jamei.
14. Omar, A. Q. (2019). Defamation and insult crimes via the Internet: A comparative study. Beirut: Al-Halabi Legal Publications.
15. Al-Fadel, K. (2020). Cybercrimes in light of Arab legislations. Alexandria: Dar Al-Fikr Al-Jamei.
16. Fattah, O. A. (2015). Freedom of expression in the Iraqi legal system. Baghdad.
17. Mohamed Moharram, M. H. (2018). Substantive criminal protection of freedom of expression: A comparative study. Alexandria: New University Publishing House.
Secondly/ research
1. Al-Qaisi, A. Q. (2018). Freedom of expression and criminal responsibility in Iraqi law. Journal of Legal Sciences, University of Baghdad.
2. Al-Saqri, S. M. (2021). Freedom of expression between permissibility and criminalization in criminal law. Legal Journal, Al-Nahrain University.
3. Shlash Hussein, A. (2019). Freedom of expression and its legal limits in Iraqi and comparative law. Iraqi Journal of Legal Sciences, University of Baghdad.
Third/ Legislation
1. Egyptian Penal Code No. 58 of 1937, amended.
2. Jordanian Penal Code No. 16 of 1960, amended.
3. Iraqi Penal Code No. 111 of 1996, amended and in force.
4. Constitution of the Republic of Iraq, 2005, in force.
5. Journalists’ Rights Law No. 21 of 2011.
6. Egyptian Law on Combating Information Technology Crimes No. 175 of 2018.
7. Egyptian Press and Media Regulation Law No. 180 of 2018.
8. United Arab Emirates Penal Code No. 31 of 2021.
Fourth/ Judicial Decisions
1. Baghdad/Rusafa Court of Appeal, Supreme Appellate Panel, 2015.
2. Babel Federal Court of Appeal, Supreme Appellate Panel, Decision No. 120/Y/2011.
3. Basra Third Investigation Court, Supreme Judicial Council – Presidency of the Basra Federal Court of Appeal, Decision No. 2636.
Fifth/ Websites
1. Al-Hashimi, M. H. (n.d.). Electronic publishing crime according to the perspective of the Penal Code. from https://la.uokerbala.edu.iq/2025/09/16/جريمة-النشر-الإلكتروني-وفق-منظور-قانو-2/
Date of last visit: 02/11/2025.
2. Al-Quds Al-Arabi. (n.d.). First Iraqi sentenced for insult via social media. from https://www.alquds.co.uk/%EF%BB%BFالحكم-على-أول-عراقي-بتهمة-السب-عبر-ال/
Date of last visit: 15/08/2025.
3. Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Fake news. from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/fake-news
Date of last visit: 08/07/2025.
4. Al-Mutalee. (n.d.). Statement of the Supreme Judicial Council regarding Dr. Ban’s case., from https://almutalee.com/news/مجلس-القضاء-الاعلى
Date of last visit: 15/09/2025.
5. Lotfi, H. (n.d.). Criminal responsibility in the media field. Retrieved September 6, 2025, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7W9EW0cj-wY
Date of last visit: 06/09/205.
6. World Health Organization. (n.d.). Combating misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. from https://www.who.int/ar/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve
Date of last visit: 20/09/2025.
7. Mawazin Net. (n.d.). Statement on prosecuting publishers of rumors about the coronavirus. from https://www.mawazin.net/Details.aspx?jimare=84270
Date of last visit: 16/09/2025.
Sixth/ Source of Source
1. Wardle,C.,Fake News. It’s complicated. First Draft,16,1-11.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Ashur Journal of Legal and Political Sciences is issued by the Iraqi Association of Legal Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The authors retain Full copyright of their published article
Ashur Journal of Legal and Political Sciences applies the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License to articles and other works we publish. If you submit your paper for publication by AJLPS, you agree to have the CC BY 4.0 license applied to your work.
Articles can be read and shared for under the following conditions:
BY: Attribution must be given to the original source (Attribution)
Full details available at
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
