Manifestations of political repression in the city of Najaf: A study of iron-fist policies and their internal and external repercussions (1990-2003)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64184/ajlps.V2.I4.Y2025.P865-906.251Keywords:
Uprising, Assassinations, Repression, Ba‘ath RegimeAbstract
The city of Al-Najaf Al-Ashraf experienced broad political and social events during this period, deeply influenced by the policies of the Ba‘ath regime, which was engaged in an eight-year war with Iran. These policies reflected negatively on the economic, social, and political conditions of the country. The withdrawal of the Iraqi army from Kuwait led to widespread public anger, resulting in uprisings against the regime—particularly in the city of Najaf and other Iraqi cities In Najaf, the people managed to stage an uprising against the government, but it was suppressed with great force and violence. Various methods of killing and destruction were used, leaving thousands of victims and turning the city into ruins. After the regime reasserted its control, the Ba‘ath Party imposed a new phase of repression, characterized by strict security surveillance, assassinations, and the persecution of religious figures and opponents.
References
First: Unpublished Documents
1. Files and documents of the Mass Graves Protection and Care Division, Martyrs Directorate of Najaf Governorate.
2. Files and documents of the Martyrs of Ba'ath Party Crimes Department, Martyrs Directorate of Najaf Governorate.
3. Files and documents of the Political Prisoners Directorate in Najaf Governorate.
First: Books
1. Makki Zubaiba, War and Uprising Diaries (Baghdad: Dar al-Shu'un al-Thaqafiyya, 2021).
2. Majid al-Majid, The Najaf Uprising of 1991 (Beirut: Dar al-Wafa, 1991).
3. Hassan Issa al-Hakim, A Detailed History of Najaf (Qom: al-Maktaba al-Haydariya, 2007), Vol. 3, Vol. 8.
4. Mu'ayyad al-Sa'di, Ba'ath Party Crimes: Crimes Against Humanity - A Reading of Basic Concepts (Baghdad: Dar al-Warith, 2020). 5. Mu'ayyad al-Sa'di, The Ba'ath Party's Crimes: Crimes Against Humanity – A Reading of Basic Concepts (Baghdad: Dar al-Warith, 2020).
6. Halim Rahim al-A'sam, Kufa in the 1900s-1999 (Babylon: Dar al-Furat for Culture and Media, 2019).
7. Sadiq al-Makhzoumi, Najaf al-Ashraf: Features of Civilization and Heritage (Najaf al-Ashraf: Adyan Foundation for Culture and Dialogue, 2021).
8. Salah Aboud Mahmoud, The Mother of All Battles: The Gulf War of 1991 – The Reality on the Ground (Amman: Al-Akademioun Publishing and Distribution Company, 2016).
9. Ishaq Naqqash, The Shi'a of Iraq, trans. Abd al-Ilah al-Nu'aimi (Qom: Al-Haydariya Library Publications, 1998). 10. Yossi M. Hanimaki, The United Nations, translated by Muhammad Fathi Khader (Cairo: Hindawi Foundation for Education and Culture).
11. Rashid Khayoun, The Theology of Politics: Parties and Religious Movements in Iraq (Beirut: Al-Jamal Publications, 2009).
12. Wasim Rifaat Al-Ani, Years of the Siege (Baghdad: Dar Al-Warsha, 2021).
13. Mukhtar Al-Asadi, The Witness and the Martyr: The Phenomenon and Reactions, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Casablanca, n.d.).
14. Abdul-Hadi Al-Hakim, The Najaf Seminary: The System and Projects of Development (Beirut: Al-A'lami Foundation for Publications, 2013).
Third: Theses and Dissertations
1. Hussein Al-Hakim, Sayyid Muhammad Saeed Al-Hakim and His Jurisprudential Views, published Master's thesis (University of Kufa: College of Jurisprudence, 2016).
2. Zahraa Hassoun Al-Fahham, The 1991 Uprising in Iraq (Najaf as a Model). 1. Salam Khosrow, Muhammad Baqir al-Hakim: A Historical Study of His Intellectual and Political Role, published Master's thesis, University of Kufa: College of Education for Women, 2014.
2. Abdul Rahim Ubaid al-Amiri, The Activity of the Shiite Islamic Opposition (1980-2003), published Master's thesis, University of Dhi Qar: College of Education for Humanities, 2019.
Fourth: English Newspapers
1. Staff reporter, Pm asked to help save Shiite shrines, The Times of India (Newspaper), India, July 6, p. 5.
2. Briefs: Shiite chief dies in Iraq, The Times of India (Newspaper), India, August 10, 1992, p. 1.
3. Caryle Murphy, Iraqi holy cities become armed camps, The Washington Post (Newspaper). paper),Washington,No207,30Jun,P.1.
4. Caryle Murphy, U.s. jet downs 2nd Iraqi plane: u.n. moves to allow food shippers, ((The Washington post)) (Newspaper), Washington, No. 108, March 23, 1991, P.1.
5. Chandran rameh,Not enoygh being done for shias,((The times of indai))(Newspaper) ,india, No97,23Apr,1991,P.14.
6. Daniel Williams, Clerics killing arouses Shiites: Iraqi officials nervous about turmoil ln south, ((The Washington post)) (newspaper) ), Washington, No. 101, 16 mar, 1999, P. 13.
7. Douglas jehl, from southern Iraq hints of a new wave of sectarian unrest, (New yourk times) (Newspaper), Newyourk, No. 51664, 3 Oct, 1999, P.16.
8. Gellman barton, Preston Julia, Targets in Iraq missed building hit, u.s.says ((TheWashington post)) (Newspaper),Washington,No 41,10 Jan,1993,p. 1.
9. Iran protests killing,((New yourk times)),(Newspaper), Newyourk, No 51137,24 Apr,1998,p.30.
10. Iraqi Shiite leader slain after distancing himself from Baghdad, ((The Washingtonpost))(Newspaper),Washington,No78,21Feb,1999,P.30. . Howard Schneider, clash reported in Iraqi: Shute group says 200 killed in weekend violence ((The Washington post)) (Newspaper), Washington, No. 81, 24 Fab, 1999, P.15.
11. Iraqi Shiites say goal is power sharing not independence,((The Washington p ost) (News paper) ashington,No 262,23Aug,1991,P.19.
12. Iraqi troops regaining control of cities,((The time of india)) (Newspaper), india. No. 57, March 7, 1991, P. 1 1
13. Jim Dwyer,Battle of najaf will be linchpin in us campaign,((The Washington post))(News paper) Washington,NO 98,2 Apr,2003,P.11.
14. Joha than ,Iraq says rebellion toll high papers print photos of bodies damage in southern cities ,((The Washington post))(Newspaper),Washington,No 76,18 March, 1991,P. 1.
15. John Lancaster, Iraqi turns Shiite shouth into tourist showcase, Lee hockstade
16. r, Saddam offer elections reforms ,((The Washington post)) (News paper),Washing, 202,17 Mar,1991, P.1. ton, NO
17. Murphy caryle,Iraqs trails pull citizens back to islam sanctions spur uncertainty return to god,((The Washington post))(Newspaper),Washington,No 239, 1 Aug , 1994, P.17.
18. No-fly zone violations in Iraq trigger attacks,((The Washington post))(Newspaper) , Washington, No. 68, 11 Feb, 1999, P. 33.
19. Nora boustany, Atrail of death in Iraq: Sheite refugess tell of atrocities by repub Blican,((Wa sh ington post)) (Newspaper),Washington,No 111,26 Mar,1991,P. 1.
20. Nora boustany,New death destruction surround ancient city Iraqi refugees tell of Government tanks massacring civillans along high way,((The Washington post))(Newspaper), Washington,No 133,28 Mar,1991,P. 31.
21. Nora boustany, Shiit ayatollah dies in southern Iraq,((Washington post)) (New spaper), Washin gton, Aug 10,1992,P. 11.
22. One killed in air raid says Iraqi, ((The times of india)) (Newspaper), india, No. 268, 30 Apr, 2001, P.12.
23. Patricke tyler, U.s.warns Iraq is agains using gas to end rebellion intelligence datacited,((New yourk times)) (Papar news),New yourk,No 48534,9 March, 1991,P.1.
24. Sachs, Susan, One faith on political goal and set to collide revered scholars sons square off in holy city, ((New yourk times))(Newspaper), New yourk, No. 52482, May 13, 1999, P.18.
25. Sachs, Susan, Tzales of Iraqis silent suffering now find voices after effects: graveyard a tale to tell and postwar progress,((New yourk times)) (Newspaper), Newyourk,No. 52491, May 22, 2003, P.13.
26. Steve coll,Clashes reported in Iraqi capital rebellion may delay gulf cease –fire today Led to,((The Washington post))(Newspaper), Washington,No 99,14 March, 1991,P. 1.
Fifth: Personal Interviews
(Personal Interview) Muhammad Abdul Zahra, born 1950, member of the Communist Party, Najaf, dated April 4, 2022.
(Personal Interview) Hussein Al-Ramahi, born 1964, employee, Najaf, dated June 19, 2022.
Sixth: Internet
1- Saddam Hussein grants military governor powers to members of the leadership, audio recording published on YouTube: https://youtu.be/Gbzdozjeuk
2- Audio recording of Saber Al-Douri, published on YouTube: https://youtu.be/9loYeVlxbzg
3- Meeting between Al-Khoei and Saddam Hussein after the government took control of the security situation in Najaf Governorate: https://youtu.be/gLuXzdURtmo 4- A report on the situation in the cities of Amarah and Nasiriyah after the killing of Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr and his two sons, published on YouTube:
https://youtu.be/QxJQgV6-6-L-s
5- Iraqis storm their country's embassy in Tehran in protest against the killing of al-Sadr, published on YouTube:
6- Saddam Hussein sends Muhammad Hamza al-Zubaidi to offer condolences for the killing of Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr in the holy city of Najaf, published on YouTube:
7- A statement by the enemies of the killers of Sayyid al-Khoei, the martyr Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr (Iraqi TV) 1999, published on YouTube:
https://youtu.be/2FWZaBozfOO 8- The people of Najaf condemn the assassination attempt on Uday Saddam Hussein, posted on YouTube: https://youtu.be/RcrV4No6nxg
9- America continues bombing Iraq on the first day of Ramadan 1998, posted on YouTube: https://youtu.be/somM-a7-Z4E
10- The Badrin Corps releases a video of the assassination attempt on Muhammad Hamza al-Zubaidi near the Taif Hotel in Najaf on August 17, 1999, posted on YouTube: https://fb.watch/dUGaJsHQvT
11- Muhammad Hamza al-Zubaidi denies being the target of an assassination attempt, posted on YouTube: https://youtu.be/YUIOErFkfLQ 12- Reasons for prohibiting visits on foot, published on YouTube
13- Marches in Iraq demanding the lifting of the embargo, January 17, 2000, published on YouTube
14- Audio and video: Fatwa of religious scholars in Najaf to stand against the American occupation, published on YouTube
15- The International Information Network (Internet), Aws al-Khafaji
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The authors retain Full copyright of their published article
Ashur Journal of Legal and Political Sciences applies the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License to articles and other works we publish. If you submit your paper for publication by AJLPS, you agree to have the CC BY 4.0 license applied to your work.
Articles can be read and shared for under the following conditions:
BY: Attribution must be given to the original source (Attribution)
Full details available at
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
